Techniques of SENTENCE COMBINATION

DISCOURSE MARKERS in ENGLISH SENTENCES

DISCOURSE MARKERS are used to combine clauses or to connect sentence elements. Each discourse marker indicates a particular meaning relationship between two or more clauses.

Four types of DISCOURSE MARKERS are used in combining English sentences:

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see I. below),

2. CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs; see II. below),

3. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (see III. a + b below),

4. PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions; or ADJ + PREP; see IV. below).

Sentences consist of COMPOUND and COMPLEX sentences:

COMPOUND SENTENCES (see I. and II. below)	1. using CONJUNCTIONS (coordinating conjunctions, double conjunctions) 2. using CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs)
COMPLEX SENTENCES (see III. a. and b. below)	3. using SUBORDINATORS (subordinating conjunctions)

Prepositions or Adjective + Preposition combinations introduce PHRASES (see IV. below)

I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (coordconj.): informally known as the FANBOYS or BOYFANS

Conjunction	Meaning	Conjunction	Meaning
F = for A = and N = nor	REASON ADDITION NEGATIVE ADDITION	B = but O = or Y = yet S = so	CONTRAST, CONCESSION CHOICE CONCESSION; unexpected result RESULT, CONSEQUENCE

Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two INDEPENDENT clauses, which are set off by a comma.

independent clause 1 , coordconj independent clause 2 .

S + V S + V

EX.: We arrived late, so we waited in the hall.

(coordconj)

II. CONNECTORS (Adverbials, conjunctive adverbs)

Connectors are discourse markers that also join two INDEPENDENT clauses, but with a semicolon (;) or a period (.). They can occur in three positions in a sentence: initial (beginning) position, medial (middle) position, and final (end) position. Good writers/speakers use the position of discourse markers to give particular emphasis to the element that immediately precedes the connector. They also make sure that they vary the position of the discourse markers to avoid monotony. The punctuation is different, depending on the position of the connector.

     A. INITIAL (BEGINNING) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the beginning of the second clause.

independent clause 1   ; connector, independent clause 2 .

     S + V                                      S + V

independent clause 1   . Connector, independent clause 2 .

     S + V                                      S + V

     EX.:     We were late for the lecture; therefore, we waited in the hall.
We were late for the lecture. Therefore, we waited in the hall.

B. MEDIAL (MIDDLE) POSITION: The connector is positioned in the middle of the second clause, usually between subject and verb. In this case, the subject is emphasized and contrasted.

independent clause 1 ; S , connector, V + C .

EX.: George and Harry are best friends. George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories; Harry, on the other hand, is more interested in sports and physical exercise.

C. FINAL (END) POSITION: The connector is positioned at the end of the second clause.

independent clause 1 ; S + V + C , connector.

EX.: George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories; Harry is more interested in sports and physical exercise, on the other hand.

MEANING RELATIONSHIPS expressed by connectors:

1. RESULT / REASON 2. CONTRAST 3. ADDITION 4. EMPHASIS

______; therefore, ____ ______; however, ______ ______; in addition, ______   ______; in fact, _______

; thus, ; in contrast, ; furthermore,     ; as a matter of fact,

; consequently, ; on the other hand, ; moreover, ; indeed,

; as a result, ; instead, ; besides,

; hence, ; rather, ; additionally,

REASON: _____; for this reason, ________

5. CONCESSION
(unexpected result) 6. TIME 7. SIMILARITY 8. NEGATIVE CONDITION

______; however, _____ _______ . First, _______ ______; similarly, ______ ______; otherwise, _____

; nevertheless,   . Second, ______; likewise, ______

; nonetheless,   . Afterward,

; still, . After that,

  . Later,

                    . Then / Next,

9. NEGATIVE EMPHASIS 10. MAIN IDEA 11. EXAMPLE 12. RESTATEMENT 13. CONCLUSION

____; on the contrary, ____ On the whole, For example, ____; in other words, _______ In conclusion,

In general, For instance, ; that means (that) To conclude,

Generally, To illustrate, In summary,

Generally speaking, To summarize,

As we have seen,

In short,

III. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (SUB)

Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause. There are two patterns (a. and b.) for positioning the dependent clause and therefore two patterns of punctuation.

a. independent clause SUB dependent clause .
S + V S + V

OR

b. SUB + dependent clause , independent clause .
SUB + S + V , S + V

EX.: a. We waited in the hall because we arrived late for the lecture.

b. Because we arrived late for the lecture, we waited in the hall.

NOTE: With because it is recommended to identify the REASON and the RESULT first in order to avoid a mix-up (incorrect meaning relationship):

a. RESULT because + REASON .

b. Because + REASON , RESULT .

Again, the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are used to signal different MEANING RELATIONSHIPS.

1. REASON/CAUSE 2. CONTRAST 3. CONCESSION (unexpected result) 4. TIME 5. PURPOSE

because , while although after so that

since , whereas even though before

as (usually used with a comma in front in Pattern a.) even if when

due to the fact that despite the fact that while

now that (though) since

in spite of the fact that as

CAUSE/EFFECT (often used with a comma in front in Pattern a.) as soon as

so...that until

such...that by the time that

such a...that whenever

the next time

6. CONDITION/RESULT 7. SIMILARITY 8. DESCRIPTION/ IDENTIFICATION
(Relative Pronouns) 9. EMBEDDED STATEMENTS/QUESTIONS

If..., (then) just as who that

whether (or not) whom what

when whose how (much/many, often, long)

In case that which who(m), which, whose

Provided that that when

Unless when where

where whether (or not), if

IV. PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions or ADJ + PREP combinations)

Phrase linkers are transitions that are often used at the beginning of a sentence.

_____________________ . PHRASE LINKER (NP) , S + V + C .
(item #1) (item #2)

1. CONTRAST 2.REASON 3. ADDITION

In contrast to _____, _____ Because of _____, _____ In addition to _____, _____

different from due to

unlike as a result of

4. SIMILARITY 5. CONCESSION
(unexpected result) 6. TIME

Similar to _____, _____ Despite _____, _____ Before / after _____, _____

like in spite of until

since

during

EX.: Due to our late arrival at the lecture, we had to wait in the hall.
                            (NP)

          In contrast to western societies, eastern societies stress the importance of community.

                                   (item #1)                 (item #2)

          Before the work of Sigmund Freud, psychology was not considered an academic subject.
                                  (NP)

Practice using discourse markers:
Grammar Check -- Transitions (multiple choice), Connectors in Context (fill-in the blank)

Problems that occur with sentence combination: Comma splices, run-on sentences, and fragments. Click the link for explanations, exercises, and self-study quizzes. More practice from Grammar-Quizzes.com: Fragments--Recognizing Complete vs. Incomplete Sentences, Identifying a Dependent Clause, and Edit the Sentences.

1. RESULT / REASON	2. CONTRAST	3. ADDITION	4. EMPHASIS
______; therefore, ____	______; however, ______	______; in addition, ______	______; in fact, _______
; thus,	; in contrast,	; furthermore,	; as a matter of fact,
; consequently,	; on the other hand,	; moreover,	; indeed,
; as a result,	; instead,	; besides,
; hence,	; rather,	; additionally,
REASON: _____; for this reason, ________

5. CONCESSION (unexpected result)	6. TIME	7. SIMILARITY	8. NEGATIVE CONDITION
______; however, _____	_______ . First, _______	______; similarly, ______	______; otherwise, _____
; nevertheless,	. Second,	______; likewise, ______
; nonetheless,	. Afterward,
; still,	. After that,
	. Later,
	. Then / Next,

9. NEGATIVE EMPHASIS	10. MAIN IDEA	11. EXAMPLE	12. RESTATEMENT	13. CONCLUSION
____; on the contrary, ____	On the whole,	For example,	____; in other words, _______	In conclusion,
	In general,	For instance,	; that means (that)	To conclude,
	Generally,	To illustrate,		In summary,
	Generally speaking,			To summarize,
				As we have seen,
				In short,

1. REASON/CAUSE	2. CONTRAST	3. CONCESSION (unexpected result)	4. TIME	5. PURPOSE
because	, while	although	after	so that
since	, whereas	even though	before
as	(usually used with a comma in front in Pattern a.)	even if	when
due to the fact that		despite the fact that	while
now that		(though)	since
		in spite of the fact that	as
CAUSE/EFFECT		(often used with a comma in front in Pattern a.)	as soon as
so...that			until
such...that			by the time that
such a...that			whenever
			the next time

6. CONDITION/RESULT	7. SIMILARITY	8. DESCRIPTION/ IDENTIFICATION (Relative Pronouns)	9. EMBEDDED STATEMENTS/QUESTIONS
If..., (then)	just as	who	that
whether (or not)		whom	what
when		whose	how (much/many, often, long)
In case that		which	who(m), which, whose
Provided that		that	when
Unless		when	where
		where	whether (or not), if

1. CONTRAST	2.REASON	3. ADDITION
In contrast to _____, _____	Because of _____, _____	In addition to _____, _____
different from	due to
unlike	as a result of

4. SIMILARITY	5. CONCESSION (unexpected result)	6. TIME
Similar to _____, _____	Despite _____, _____	Before / after _____, _____
like	in spite of	until
		since
		during